Nearly a hundred and ten years (March/May 1917) after the end of recruitment of indentured laborers from India and nearly 106 years after the abolition of indentureship in British colonies, the contribution of Mahatma Gandhi to the campaign against that dehumanizing, slave-like labor system remains an important chapter in the history of India, the making of the Indian diaspora that is spread across the globe, and the life of the diaspora. The abolition of indentureship stands as a significant milestone in the history of the Indian diaspora with far reaching implications for India and the diaspora itself. Indentureship led to the creation of the Indian diaspora not dissimilar to how slavery led to the rise of the African diaspora. The subject of indentureship continues to be of interest to descendants of Indians whose ancestors labored during indentureship and to scholars (in disciplines of various universities) of the subject in India and the diaspora. The struggle of Gandhi and other Indian freedom fighters was critical in ending that exploitative labor system. Gandhi’s opposition to global indentureship developed from his experiences in observing that oppressive, predatory labor system in South Africa where he spent considerable years (May 1893- Jan 2015) opposing it and the ill-treatment of Indians, Blacks, and other non-Whites. He led a campaign against the abuse of Indians and racism in South Africa and later became involved in the national campaign in India to end indentureship of Indian laborers overseas.
Indentureship was a system under which Indian workers (girmitiyas) entered contracts to perform physical labour (on farming plantation) for fixed periods (5 years with ‘manipulative’ renewal option) in British colonies and other imperial territories (of France, Holland, Denmark that sent indentured laborers to St. Croix, that was later sold to the US). The Indian indentureship period began in 1828 first to (French) Reunion Island where indentureship and slavery existed side by side and where Indians, according to reports, also served as slaves alongside Africans. Indentured laborers were sent to Mauritius in 1834, British Guiana in 1838, and other territories thereafter. Some 1.5 million Indians were transported to places including South Africa, Fiji, Mauritius, British Guiana, Trinidad, Jamaica, French Guiana, Grenada, Martinique, Guadeloupe, Suriname, St. Lucia, St. Vincent, Belize, St. Croix, Seychelles, Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Malawi, and other colonies. Workers were promised (low) wages and other benefits (that were hardly delivered especially in British colonies in the Caribbean). They faced difficult, unscrupulous, predatory laboring conditions, including restrictions on movements and cultural practices, poor nutrition, diseases that killed many (an average of 20%), inadequate pay and at times no payment, fines if they ‘violate’ the contract, and other very harsh, unethical treatment. The indentured system drew the attention of human rights organizations and Indian politicians. It became increasingly controversial and was condemned all around by Indian nationalists (championing India’s independence) and religious figures as an affront to human dignity – not dissimilar from slavery, as scholars commented. It was criticised for its coercive character as laborers could not venture more than two miles from the estate, could not celebrate cultural festivals, and the dead (Hindus) could not be cremated, among other restrictions. Workers faced penalties for breaches of ‘labour regulations’ with no judicial recourse. Reports of abuse and exploitation gradually attracted attention in India and among social reformers in the colonies. Gandhi spoke out publicly against the abuses.
Gandhi’s personal experience in South Africa gave him an intimate understanding of the problems faced by indentured laborers and confronting indentured Indians and their descendants overseas. He arrived in South Africa in 1893 and soon encountered racial discrimination against Indians including himself. He was thrown off a train coach that was reserved only for Whites. During his years there, he actively fought against racism holding meetings, protests, rallies, marches to expose human indignity of the racist practices of Whites. His initial legal work and later his activism brought him into contact with both indentured and formerly indentured Indians. He witnessed the social and economic difficulties faced by Indian and Black workers and became convinced that the system was incompatible with human dignity. He committed to fight against it. He worked hard to unite Indians across social and religious divisions and established political organisations to defend their rights; Indians were of Hindu and Muslim background and of multiple castes. Gandhi’s anti-racist and anti-exploitative campaign brought him into contact with indentured and former indentured workers and business people, exposing him to the hardships experienced by the labouring population.
One of the major issues in South Africa was a burdensome £3 tax imposed on former indentured workers who remained in Natal after completing their contracts. Gandhi opposed the tax because it placed a heavy, unfair burden on workers who had completed their period of indenture and wanted to engage in ‘free’ labor. His campaign eventually contributed to the abolition of the tax and other oppressive measures affecting the Indian community. The 1914 settlement between Gandhi and the White South African authorities not only abolished the £3 tax but also recognized Indian (Hindu and Islamic) marriages. Recognition of Indian marriages in Guyana and other British territories came much later. Feeling that his mission in South Africa was accomplished, Gandhi decided to return to India at the request of India independence movement leaders.
After returning to India on January 9, 1915, he turned his attention to the continuing recruitment of Indian labourers for overseas colonies. Gandhi’s South African experience strengthened his conviction that indentureship globally had to end altogether. He joined the growing campaign against indentured emigration. He was not alone as political leaders, reformers, journalists and community organisations had already been raising concerns about the system, urging reforms. His campaign also coincided with growing criticism of indentureship throughout the Caribbean and by Indian politicians. Reports about the conditions of workers overseas created increasing pressure on the colonial authorities to end the system. The Indian nationalist Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya, among the earliest freedom fighters, pressed for abolition of the system in parliament. Gandhi brought additional public energy and moral force to the campaign to end indentureship. In 1916, Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya moved a resolution in the Imperial Legislative Council calling for abolition of indentureship. The British Government indicated that the system would eventually end, but Gandhi felt an indefinite promise was insufficient. He argued that India should demand a definite date for abolition.
In early 1917, Gandhi began a determined campaign to build public opinion against indentured emigration. He travelled around the country, addressing public meetings, urging Indians to reject the indenture system that he considered degrading to the country and overseas Indian’s dignity. CF Andrews, a lay preacher and sympathizer of Indians and a supporter of Gandhi, was sent abroad by the Indian leadership to report on conditions of the indentured laborers. CF Andrew’s visited Guyana, Trinidad, and other colonies. He reported that the indentured laborers and their descendants were severely mistreated. Pressure was on the British authorities to end the practice.
A significant moment came during Gandhi’s visit to Calcutta in March 1917. At a large public meeting that he addressed at the Town Hall, he called for and the crowd demanded the immediate abolition of indentured emigration. He insisted that India could not continue to tolerate the system while discussions and official procedures were repeatedly used to postpone action. The campaign helped create strong public pressure on the Government.
The British Government subsequently moved towards ending recruitment. The suspension of indentured recruitment was announced in March 11/12 1917, although Prof Ashutosh Kumar sated that evidence revealed it was May 25, and the indentureship system was abolished on January 1, 1920 in all British territories. The abolition came later in French and Dutch colonies. Only a small number of Indian laborers were taken to the island of St. Croix by Denmark. After the laborers served their five year term, almost all returned to India.
Gandhi acknowledged that public agitation and the work of campaigners were important factors in securing the end of indentureship. The abolition of indentureship was also the result of the courage and persistence of some of the workers themselves, as well as the efforts of many activists, politicians, journalists and reformers overseas as well as in India. Indian labourers had resisted exploitation in different ways, while campaigners documented their conditions and brought their grievances to public attention. Some were for continuation of the system as they felt Indians were better off in the colonies than in rural India. Several Indian leaders in Guyana advocated for continuation of importation of laborers from India even after abolition of the system. The Indian government stopped it altogether.
The end of indentured recruitment and its abolition in 1920 had far-reaching consequences leaving over two million Indians behind. And although the system itself was abolished, almost all the Indians at that time decided to settle down rather than return to India. Those who returned to India spoke of their alienation and difficulties in returning to their villages. Those who chose to remain in the colonies purchased or leased land, established businesses, formed religious and cultural institutions and raised families. The descendants of these immigrants became an integral part of national life. Their contributions can be seen in agriculture, commerce, education, politics, religion, music, cuisine and community development. They have made significant contributions to the cultural, economic and political life of countries such as Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana, Suriname, Fiji, Mauritius, South Africa, Kenya, Seychelles, among others. It is not forgotten that outstanding Indians co-led the struggle against apartheid in South Africa. Hindu and Muslim traditions brought from India also became enduring features of life wherever they are. And many have re-migrated to the developed countries in the north where they have institutionalized their culture and are making significant contributions at the local and national level.
As the diaspora celebrated Gandhi’s birth anniversary on October 2, his role in fighting exploitation and ending indentureship is remembered as part of his broader commitment to human dignity and justice and rights.